TOEFL/IELTS高得点で必須の文法講座｜学校で教えない文法７選

1. その代名詞が指すのはどの名詞？
2. 名詞が並んでる。同格ってなに？
3. 主語がない！？　ダングリング！！
4. 関係代名詞の省略と学校で教えるウソ
5. thanの比較対象ってどおれ？
6. 意外と知らない仮定法/仮定法の省略
7. 日本人は全員苦手。倒置が出ても慌てるな

It has been suggested that Pakicetus fed on fish in shallow water and was not yet adapted for life in the open ocean. It probably bred and gave birth on land.

Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.

When not in use, the fins are tucked into special grooves or depressions so that they lie flush with the body and do not break up its smooth contours.

Other statues were designed to be placed within an architectural setting, for instance, in front of the monumental entrance gateways to temples known as pylons, or in pillared courts, where they would be placed against or between pillars: their frontality worked perfectly within the architectural context.

With the advent of projection, the viewer’s relationship with the image was no longer private, as it had been with earlier peepshow devices such as the Kinetoscope and the Mutoscope, which was a similar machine that reproduced motion by means of successive images on individual photographic cards instead of on strips of celluloid. It suddenly became public—an experience that the viewer shared with dozens, scores, and even hundreds of others.

引用元 : TOEFL Official guide

Workers were united in resenting the industrial system and their loss of status, but they were divided by ethnic and racial antagonisms, gender, conflicting religious perspectives, occupational differences, political party loyalties, and disagreements over tactics. For them, the factory and industrialism were not agents of opportunity but reminders of their loss of independence and a measure of control over their lives.

In classic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. He then asked people around the world to indicate what emotions were being depicted in them.

Under very cold conditions, rocks can be shattered by ice and frost. Glaciers may form in permanently cold areas, and these slowly moving masses of ice cut out valleys, carrying with them huge quantities of eroded rock debris.

引用元 : TOEFL Official guide

Thomas Edison’s peepshow device, the Kinetoscope, was introduced to the public in 1894.

One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.

They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant.

To be competitive in winning votes, Whigs and Democrats both had to have significant support among farmers, the largest group in society, and workers.

That is why the smallest of the herbivores, Thomson’s gazelle, lives on fruit that is very nutritious but too thin on the ground to support a larger animal.

She later used scores by Gluck, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Wagner, eventually graduating to Stravinsky, Fauré, Debussy, and Mussorgsky, composers who were then considered progressive.

引用元 : TOEFL Official guide

 例文集

Approaching crafts from the point of view of function, we can divide them into simple categories: containers, shelters, and supports.

In some cases the loose soil is blown completely away, leaving a stony surface.

The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration.

Water absorption is greatly reduced; consequently, runoff is increased, resulting in accelerated erosion rates.

In the phonograph parlors, customers listened to recordings through individual ear tubes, moving from one machine to the next to hear different recorded speeches or pieces of music.

He refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that if he made and sold projectors

He refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that if he made and sold projectors, then exhibitors would purchase only one machine-a projector-from him instead of several.

It is thought that these grooves help to channel water through the mouth and out the gill slits, thereby reducing water resistance.

They have evolved special “heaters” of modified muscle tissue that warm the eyes and brain, maintaining peak performance of these critical organs.

By regulating the economy and competition, the government could ensure equal opportunity.

Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in geological terms.

Carbon dioxide in the air reacts with the rainwater, forming a weak acid (carbonic acid) that may chemically attack the rocks.

In contrast, the roots of grasses and other small plants may help to hold loose soil fragments together, thereby helping to prevent erosion by the wind.

It is a fast-in/fast-out feeder, relying on a high output of incompletely digested food.

They may change color with changing light conditions and cloud cover, glowing pink or gold in the morning or evening light.

The scientists concluded that green icebergs form when a two-layer block of shelf ice breaks away and capsizes (turns upside down), exposing the bubble-free shelf ice that was formed from seawater.

No air bubbles were present in the green ice, suggesting that the ice was not formed from the compression of snow but instead from the freezing of seawater.

Interestingly enough, several of these hydrodynamic adaptations resemble features designed to improve the aerodynamics of high-speed aircraft.

Icebergs are massive blocks of ice, irregular in shape.

引用元 : TOEFL Official guide

1.  be動詞は消す
2. 動詞は~ingにする
3.  had P.P はhaving P.P にする 

 例文集

Although we now tend to refer to the various crafts according to the materials used to construct them―clay, glass, wood, fiber, and metal―it was once common to think of crafts in terms of function, which led to their being known as the “applied arts.” 

The applied arts are thus bound by the laws of physics, which pertain to both the materials used in their making and the substances and things to be contained, supported, and sheltered. 

Because their primary purpose is not functional, they are only limited in terms of the materials used to make them. 

In 1979, a team looking for fossils in northern Pakistan found what proved to be the oldest fossil whale. 

Pakicetus probably detected sound through the ear opening as in land mammals.

The process may be accelerated in subsequent decades if global warming resulting from air pollution seriously increases. 

The semiarid lands bordering the deserts exist in a delicate ecological balance and are limited in their potential to adjust to increased environmental pressures.

The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil.

The increased pressures of expanding populations have led to the removal of woody plants so that many cities and towns are surrounded by large areas completely lacking in trees and shrubs. 

An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggests that aggression is natural and even desirable for people.

Yet children, also fearing their parents’ punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. 

Also, skilled artisans did not work by the clock, at a steady pace, but rather in bursts of intense labor alternating with more leisurely time.

Goods produced by factories were not as finished or elegant as those done by hand, and pride in craftsmanship gave way to the pressure to increase rates of productivity. 

Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about by the market, banks, and commerce. 

 Moreover, people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions. 

Psychological research has given rise to some interesting findings concerning the facial-feedback hypothesis. 

Fuller devised a type of dance that focused on the shifting play of lights and colors on the voluminous skirts or draperies she wore, which she kept in constant motion principally through movements of her arms, sometimes extended with wands concealed under her costumes. 

The slush is compacted by an unknown mechanism, and solid, bubble-free ice is formed from water high in soluble organic substances. When an iceberg separates from the ice shelf and capsizes, the green ice is exposed.

引用元 : TOEFL Official guide

1. thanの前に名詞が1つしかない場合は、比較対象は明らか、何もする必要なし
2. thanの前に名詞が複数ある場合は、どの名詞と比較しているのか明らかにする

1. Hanako is more friendly to me than Taro.
2. Hanako is more friendly to me than Taro is.
3. Hanako is more friendly to me than is Taro.
4. Hanako is more friendly to me than to Taro.

演習問題2

1. Hanako likes Taro than Ken.
2. Hanako likes Taro than Ken does.
3. Hanako likes Taro than does Ken.
4. Hanako likes Taro than she likes Ken.

演習問題3

1. Hanako is taller than Ken is.
2. Hanako is taller than Ken does.
3. Hanako is taller than Ken.
4. Hanako is taller than me.
5. Hanko is taller than I.

1. × Taro単体ではTomをHanako/meどちらと比較しているのかわからない
2. ○ TaroとHanakoを比較しているのが明らか
3. ○ Taroとisの倒置はOK
4. ○ Taroとmeを比較しているのが明らか

演習問題2　答え

1. × Ken単体ではKenをHanako/Taroどちらと比較しているのかわからない
2. ○ KenとHanakoを比較しているのが明らか
3. ○ KenとDoesは倒置OK
4. ○ KenとTaroを比較しているのが明らか

演習問題3　答え

1. × Thanの前に名詞が一つ(Hanako)しかないので、KenとHanakoを比較しているのが明らか。isをつけなくて良い
2. × Kenと花子を比較したければKen is。
3. ○ KenとHanakoを比較しているのが明らか
4. × meとHanako(主語)を比較したければ、meは主語のIにしなければならない
5. ○ IとHanakoを比較しているのが明らか

If + 主語 +動詞(現在形) 〜 ,  主語 + will/can + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

will/canは可能性の高い、現在の仮定。

If + 主語 +動詞(現在形) 〜 ,  主語 + would/could + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

would/couldは可能性の低い、現在の仮定。

If + 主語 +動詞(過去形/were) 〜 ,  主語 +would/could + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

絶対にありえない、現在の仮定。

If + 主語 + had + 動詞(過去完了形) 〜 ,  主語 + would/could + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

もし、過去のあの時にこうだったら、今、こうだったのにを表す。

If + 主語 + 動詞(過去完了形) 〜 ,  主語 + would/could + have + 動詞(過去完了形) 〜 .

もし、過去のあの時にこうだったら、過去のあの時、こうだったにを表す。

If + 主語 + should + 動詞(現在形)〜 ,  主語 + will/can + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

will/canは可能性の高い未来を仮定。

If + 主語 + should + 動詞(現在形)〜 ,  主語 + would/could + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

would/couldは可能性の低い未来の仮定。

(1) 仮定法現在

If + 主語 +動詞(現在形) 〜 ,  主語 + will/can + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

•  will/canは可能性の高い現在の仮定

If + 主語 +動詞(現在形) 〜 ,  主語 + would/could + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

•  would/couldは可能性の低い現在の仮定

(2) 仮定法過去

If + 主語 +動詞(過去形/were) 〜 ,  主語 +would/could + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

•  絶対にありえない現在の仮定

(3) 仮定法過去完了

If + 主語 + had + 動詞(過去完了形) 〜 ,  主語 + would/could + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

•  もし、過去のあの時にこうだったら、今、こうだったのにを表す

If + 主語 + 動詞(過去完了形) 〜 ,  主語 + would/could + have + 動詞(過去完了形) 〜 .

•  もし、過去のあの時にこうだったら、過去のあの時、こうだったにを表す

(4) 仮定法未来

If + 主語 + should + 動詞(現在形)〜 ,  主語 + will/can + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

•  will/canは可能性の高い未来を仮定

If + 主語 + should + 動詞(現在形)〜 ,  主語 + would/could + 動詞(現在形) 〜 .

•  would/couldは可能性の低い未来の仮定

If Hanako kisses Taro now, Taro will be happy.

If Hanako kisses Taro now, Taro would be happy.

If I were a bird, I could fly.

If I were a bird, I can fly.

If I had studied hard in university, I could have got a good GPA.

If I had studied hard in university, I could work at a good company.

If I had studied hard in university, I can work at a good company.

If I should get 100 on TOEFL, I could study abroad.